Peru

Collaborating Institutions

Southern Illinois University at Carbondale


Christopher C. Kohler
Susan T. Kohler


Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana


Enrique Rios Isern


Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana


Fernando Alcantara Bocanegra

Introduction

South America is comprised of eight countries that have USAID presence status (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela). These countries share the common language of Spanish, except for Brazil where Portuguese is spoken. Excluding Paraguay, these countries are linked by major river systems, particularly the drainages comprising the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers. The largest diversity of freshwater fishes in the world is contained within these drainages. Accordingly, South America offers a special opportunity to develop appropriate technologies to cultivate alternative aquaculture species native to this continent. Economic opportunities also exist for culturing ornamental fishes, since the bulk of the freshwater ornamental fishes taken from the wild originate in South America. Tilapia have been introduced to all eight USAID-presence countries in South America. However, they are illegal in the Peruvian Amazon basin. The addition of South America to the PD/A CRSP provides considerable and unique opportunities to expand the CRSP Central Database, as well as conduct global experiments under a new range of conditions. Currently, a prime site is being established at Iquitos, Peru, which is in the heart of the Peruvian Amazon (Loreto Region). The Loreto Region, with a population of 602,000, constitutes 27% of the country's total area. Approximately 46% of the region's population resides in the city of Iquitos. The main resource in the region is the integrated rain forest. The people in the region are primarily engaged in agriculture, cattle-raising, forestry, hunting, fishing, and tourist activities. Other economic activities of major importance to the region include the mining and drilling of non-renewable resources such as oil, gold, and silica.

In the Peruvian Amazon there are three important institutions that are working with aquaculture: Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP), Ministerio de Pesqueria (Peruvian Government), and Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP). In the past 10 years they have produced thousands of fry and have developed various aquacultural techniques. Colossoma and Piaractus are considered by local aquaculturists as the best fishes for commercialization in the tropical part of Peru.

A Memorandum of Understanding is currently in place linking IIAP, UNAP and SIUC into the CRSP network. It is hoped that the Ministerio de Pesqueria will be added at a later date. Between IIAP and UNAP there exist 49 earthen culture ponds ranging in size from 60 m² to nearly a hectare. Laboratory facilities also exist to monitor water quality variables of ponds and sustainable development of important fish species native to South America. These fishes also have potential for aquaculture development in the U.S.

The studies described in the work plan were originally developed for Colossoma macropomum. However, the present drought in Peru is believed to have resulted in an almost complete failure of Colossoma to spawn. In order to maintain research momentum, the planned experiments will be conducted with a closely related species, Piaractus brachypomum.

Note: Schedule has been revised. See First Addendum to the Eighth Work Plan

Objective
Significance
Beneficiaries
Collaborative Arrangements
Methods
Statistical Methods and Hypotheses
Identification of Deliverables
Schedule/Timeline
References

Objective

To compare survival, growth, standing crop at harvest, condition, feed conversion, and cost of production for C. macropomum and/or Piaractus spp. at three stocking densities in earthen ponds at Iquitos, Peru.

Significance

C. macropomum andPiaractus spp. are native to the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers (Goulding 1982). A need exists to evaluate the aquaculture potential of local and native species, and to develop appropriate culture technologies. Colossoma spp., Piaractus spp., and their hybrids are important food fishes in the Amazon basin. However, little production technology has to date been developed and published. In addition, there has been inadequate attention to economic analyses, such as determinations of cost of production. Such information is critical for the sustainable development of these new aquaculture species.

Presently the available broodstocks are generally taken from the natural environment although some have been produced in aquaculture stations (Table 1 - 39K). The fish are captured as fry, fingerling, juvenile, or adults and then are stocked in culture ponds and prepared as future broodstock. The selection of broodstock is made based on external characteristics during the spawning season. Only in Brazil and in Panama do culturists select broodstock based on individual performance (growth rate, quantity and quality of semen, fertilization rate, fry production, etc.).

Male and female C. macropomum generally reach sexual maturity in 3 and 4 years, respectively, when they have attained 3-6 kg in weight. Piaractus become sexually mature about a year sooner, and at a smaller size (2-4 kg). Fish held in captivity must be induced to spawn using hormones (Gonzales 1987). No standardization in terms of hormone type or dosage exists (Table 2 - 39K). After hormonal treatment gametes are stripped and mixed using the dry method (Alcantara and Guerra 1992). Both MacDonald-type and Woynarovich-type incubators are employed, with the latter being most common. The optimum water temperature for incubation is reported as being between 26-29°C. Hatching occurs 10-20 h post-fertilization and is temperature dependent. Temperature/water quality fluctuations during hatching often impede hatching success. A simple water recirculation system allowing for efficient water temperature/quality control will be employed during this critical stage.

Colossoma and Piaractus larvae feed on rotifers, protozoans and crustaceans in the first 11 days, but can accept prepared food at day 6 (Campos 1993). The size of the zooplankton and water clarity is very important. The organs of taste or gustation of the larvae are not well developed, so the larvae need water with adequate transparency in order to see and capture food. The best initial food for larval Colosoma and Piaractus larvae are rotifers. Rotifers reproduce quickly when they are in water rich in algae, bacteria, and organic detritus and very low or absent populations of competitors (i.e. copepods, cladocerans). Rotiferans are also important food because they do not jump and are easy prey for the larvae to capture. Considerable research has been conducted throughout Latin America on appropriate techniques to fertilize ponds to produce zooplankton in the proper sequence (Batista et al. 1986; De Morais et al. 1986; Da Costa and De Melo 1986; Ascon 1988; Valencia and Puentes 1989). Researchers will visit stations in neighboring countries to ascertain the current state-of-the-art in this regard prior to conduct of further experimentation. The considerable database on this subject already developed by past CRSP researchers will be examined and, if appropriate, other CRSP researchers will be brought in or visited for consultation.

No standardization exists for stocking densities of fry or fingerlings (Campos 1993). Likewise, no uniform fish diets are available in the region (Cantelmo et al. 1986; Ferraz de Lima and Castagnolli 1989). This project will initially aim to determine proper stocking densities to efficiently and economically rear C. macropomum and/or Piaractus spp. to marketable size (1kg). Replicated pond studies will be carried out in Iquitos at the Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP) pond facility (24 ponds). Water quality variables of ponds and effluents will be monitored.

Beneficiaries

The development of sustainable aquaculture of C. macropomum and/or Piaractus spp. will benefit many sectors throughout the Peruvian Amazon. Rural farmers will benefit by the addition of an alternative to other forms of agriculture. Aquaculture production will require considerably less land than that needed for cattle ranching. Moreover, ponds can be used year-after-year whereas rain forest lands converted to traditional agricultural practices are rarely productive for more than a couple of seasons, and such lands, once abandoned, usually can no longer support normal jungle growth. Both rural and urban poor will benefit by the addition of a steady supply of high quality protein in the marketplace. Aquaculture of C. macropomum
Peru and/or Piaractus spp. should relieve some of the fishing pressure on these overharvested, native species. These species have been shown to play a crucial ecological role in disseminating seeds from the flooded forest. Accordingly, the aquaculture of C. macropomum and/or Piaractus spp. will be ecologically as well as economically and nutritionally beneficial to the inhabitants of the Peruvian Amazon.

Collaborative Arrangements

The project links U.S. and Peruvian aquaculturists with economist/regional development specialists to identify and resolve biological and economic constraints hindering establishment of commercial aquaculture in the Peruvian Amazon. Many of these linkages have already been established through a USIA grant linking SIUC with Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP) in a three-year faculty exchange program. Several exchanges have already taken place. Collaborative ties have more recently been forged with the Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP). This project will primarily be conducted in collaboration with IIAP due to the research and extension focus of this organization. Dr. Fernando Alcantara Bocanegra will serve as the Peruvian project director. Dr. Alcantara has a joint appointment with UNAP, thus ensuring a university linkage.

Methods

The spawning season for C. macropomum in Peru is October-February. Gametes will be stripped and fertilization will take place using the dry method, and embryos will be incubated in Woynarovich-type incubators (Figure 1; Table 3 - 33 K) at 26-28°C (Alcantara 1985). Because water temperature is critical for egg incubation, a simple water recirculation system with heaters will be designed and constructed (see Neto et al. 1987). Fry will subsequently be stocked at 200, 400, or 600/m² in ponds, treated with chicken manure 0.1 kg/m²/15d and triple superphosphate (30 g/m²/15d) (Ascon 1988), or possibly other treatments (Table 4 - 33 K). Feeding will commence immediately after stocking using prepared feed. C. macropomum are currently being reared in Iquitos using poultry feed (25% protein).

Site: Iquitos, Peru

Pond Facilities: IIAP Aquaculture Center (12 ponds of about 0.5 ha).

Culture Period: 12 month grow-out

Stocking Rates: 200, 400, and 600 larvae/m² (4 ponds/stocking rate)

Water Management: Fertilization with chicken manure (0.1 kg/m²/15d); triple superphosphate (30 g/m²/15d).

Statistical Methods and Hypotheses

Data values will be analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Appropriate transformations will be made where necessary. If significant differences among treatment means are found, then the appropriate post-hoc test will be employed to determine where the differences lie. The accepted level of significance will be 0.05.

Null Hypothesis: Stocking rate of C. macropomum does not affect survival, growth rates, feed conversion, standing crop at harvest, and/or cost of production.

Alternate Hypothesis: Stocking rate of C. macropomum affects survival, growth rate, feed conversion, standing crop at harvest, and/or cost of production.

Identification of Deliverables

1) Identify efficacious pond stocking density for C. macropomum.

2) Determine aquaculture performance characteristics of C. macropomum in earthen ponds in Iquitos, Peru.

3) Determine cost of production for C. macropomum reared in earthen ponds at Iquitos, Peru.

References

Alcantara, F. 1985. Reproduccion inducida de gamitana Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier 1818). Doctoral Thesis, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Peru.

Alcantara, F., and H. Guerra. 1992. Avances en la produccion de alevinos de gamitana Colossoma macropomum y paco C. brachypomun por reproduccion inducida. Publication of the Instituto Del Mar Del Peru (IMARPE) and Instituto De Investigaciones de La Amazonia Peruana (IIAP) 4:23-33.

Ascon, G. 1988. Trabajos de investigacion pesquera en Selva Alta, Peru. Informe Tecnico Anual En el Instituto De Investigaciones De la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP), Iquitos, Peru.

Batista, M., M. De Araujo, and J. Senhorini. 1986. Alimento vivo (Fito e Zooplancton) na criacao de larvas da especies do genero Colossoma. Sintese Dos Trabalhos Realizados Com species Do Genero Colossoma March/82, Abril/86. Proyecto Aquacultura, Pirassununga, Brazil 3:15.

Campos, L.B. 1993. The culture of gamitana (Colossoma macropomum, Cuvier, 1818) in Latin America. M.S. Thesis. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA.

Cantelmo, A., A. De Soura, and J. Senhorini. 1986. Dimencao da particula do alimento para alevinos de pacu, Colossoma mitrei e tamabaqui Colossoma macropomum. Sintese Dos Trabalhos Realizados Com Species Do Genero Colossoma March/82, Abril/86. Editor Proyecto Aquicultura, Perassununga, Brasil.

Da Costa, M., and C. De Melo. 1986. Uso de insecticida organofosforado no seleccion de zooplancton. Observacao preliminar. Sintese Dos Trabalhos Realizados com especies do genero Colossoma Marz/82 Abril/86. Editor Proyectos Aquicultura, CEPTA, Perassununga, Brasil.

De Morais, F., N. De Araujo, and J. Senhorini. 1986a. Sobrevivensa de larvas do Colossoma macropomum em tanques tratados com organofosforados (Folidol 60%). Sintese Dos Trabalhos Realizados Com Especies Do Genero Colossoma Marzo/82 Abril/86. Editor Proyecto Aquicultura, Perassununga, Brasil.

Ferraz De Lima, J., and N. Castagnolli. 1989. Reproducao, larvicultura e genetica: cultivo de Colossoma. Primera Reunion Grupo de Trabajo Tecnico. Junio 1988. Perassununga, Brasil. Editor A. Hernandez: 315-322.

Gonzales, J. 1987. Actividad biologica de extractos hipofisarios de Teleosteos y sus cambios en los ciclos reproductivos y ambientales. Master Thesis, Universidad Central de Venezuela.

Goulding, M. 1982. The fishes and the forest. Explorations in Amazonian natural history. University of California Pess. Berkeley.

Neto, J.R., C.C. Kohler, and W.M. Lewis. 1987. Water re-use system for production of fingerling fishes in Brazil, with emphasis on South American catfishes (Rhamdia quelens and R. sapo). Tropical Agriculture 64:2-6.

Valencia, O., and R. Puentes. 1989. El cultivo de la Cachama (Colossoma macropomum). Primera Reunion Del Grupo de Trabajo Tecnico 1988, Perassununga, Brasil. Editado por A. Hernandez:116-142.