former shrimp farmers; seven had converted to other aquatic species (fish and crabs) while one was planning to rent land for shrimp culture. Thirteen current farmers moved from one farm to another when production declined, indicating a slight preference for relocation over conversion. In the other two study areas combined, only three active shrimp farmers had relocated. Almost the entire area classified as abandoned in Chanthaburi was a single large company that had failed in its attempt to practice intensive culture on an industrial scale.
A much higher percentage of conversion was observed in Chachoengsao. Only 27% of the area surveyed was still dedicated to shrimp culture, while over 71% had been converted to other forms of aquaculture. Farmers clearly had opted for conversion over abandonment or sale of land. Very few people relied on only one source of income, and few individuals had moved away from agricultural pursuits.
In Samut Sakhon, conversion was much higher compared to the other study sites, reaching 84%. Many different types of conversion were observed, and a larger portion of conversion involved land sale. Two housing developments accounted for the highest portion of conversion in area. Each of these had displaced approximately 200 farmers. Conversion to extensive systems using natural seed stock and no inputs was the most commonly observed aquacultural conversion in Samut Sakhon.
The interviews used to evaluate conversion options had common question sets broken down into three themes: perceptions of community well-being, employment preference, and problem perception. The former two themes were quantified using a five-point Likert scale, and the latter simply yes or no. Table 5 outlines questions from the survey and the theme to which each belonged.
Perceptions of community well-being indicate how respondents believed the community had developed through the evolution of shrimp culture. There was a perception of positive change in communities during the shrimp boom. Positive development was expressed by agreement with statements 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, and 15, and disagreement with statement 13. There was a strong agreement that villages had grown, that people worked more, and they earned more money. Respondents agreed children had more opportunity and defined this by explaining that education was better and there were more options for employment and mobility. There was a general sense that people were happier than in the past, and very strong agreement that there was more government representation for local people. In general, respondents believed there was less illness and fewer sick people. They
also agreed there was more pollution than in the past. Despite experiencing more pollution, there was a sense that the environment in general was better. The only nonsignificant response was on question 6. Therefore, in general, respondents felt their communities had grown and developed in positive ways.
When data were grouped for individual study sites, the only significant difference occurred on the question of pollution. In Samut Sakhon, there was significantly stronger agreement than at the other sites that there was more pollution. When grouped by informant type, there were no significant differences.
Responses on employment preference indicated that land ownership and self-employment were more desirable than off-farm employment. There was very strong agreement for aggregate data that people with their own land are less subject to economic problems, and that communities would be better off if more people owned land. There was very strong disagreement that it is better to work for someone else than to own your own land. Respondents demonstrated a preference for shrimp farming over factory or retail work, and a preference for work in shops over factories. Respondents also preferred shrimp farming over salt farming, and salt farming over factory work.
When sites were compared to the aggregated total, respondents in Samut Sakhon differed significantly in opinion from the other two sites on a number of questions in the employment preference theme. They agreed more strongly that people with their own land were less subject to economic problems. They slightly disagreed that shrimp farmers had a better life than salt farmers, but they were stronger in agreement that salt farmers had a better life than factory workers.
Very few respondents identified any problems with shrimp culture or abandoned land. Over 70% of those sampled agreed farmers had to change practices or leave their land. When asked about abandoned or underutilized land, however, there was no sense that it was a problem at the local level. Eighty-seven percent of the sample indicated there was no problem with abandoned shrimp ponds in the village. The opinions regarding underutilized land were not as clear. Overall, 71% of respondents stated there was no problem with underutilized land, but the responses from Chachoengsao and Samut Sakhon were not significantly different from random.
Discussion
Three general statements about shrimp farm abandonment and conversion can be derived from this study. First, assessing the extent of abandonment was complicated by a high