Introduction

The Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program (PD/A CRSP) conducts research that contributes significantly to the removal of major constraints to aquacultural development, thereby promoting economic growth and enhancing food security. This report describes the activities and accomplishments of the PD/A CRSP during the period 1 August 2000 to 31 July 2001. A companion volume to this report, The Nineteenth Annual Technical Report, comprises the collected technical accomplishments of CRSP-funded research in the period.

The PD/A CRSP is funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), under authority of the International Development and Food Assistance Act of 1975 (PL 94-161), and by the universities and institutions that participate in the CRSP. This cohesive program of research is carried out in selected developing countries and the United States by teams of US and host country scientists. Now operating under its fourth USAID grant since 1982, the CRSP is guided by the concepts and direction set down in the Continuation Plan 1996, which was awarded funding under USAID Grant No. LAG-G-00-96-90015-00. This grant authorized program activities from 1 August 1996 to 31 July 2001. The grant was extended in the reporting period, changing the formal completion date of the program to 31 July 2003. An overview of CRSP history and how the program has evolved since its inception is provided in Appendix 1.

The activities of this multinational, multi-institutional, and multidisciplinary program are administered by Oregon State University (OSU), which functions as Management Entity (ME) and has technical, programmatic, and fiscal responsibility for the performance of grant provisions. ME activities at OSU are carried out through a Program Management Office (PMO), which is supported in the task of program administration by three advisory bodies: the Board of Directors (BOD), the Technical Committee (TC), and the External Evaluation Panel (EEP). PMO staff as well as advisory group membership during the reporting period appears in Appendix 2.

Annual Highlights

• The PD/A CRSP Program Management Office (PMO) prepared and submitted a successful two-year extension proposal to USAID. The completion date for the current grant was extended from 31 July 2001 to 2003. In response to a directive from Congress on biotechnology, USAID allocated additional funding to several CRSPs, among them the PD/A CRSP for a biotechnology proposal submitted by the PMO.
• In the CRSPs two-year extension period, the program will undertake a new work plan of research investigations, the Tenth Work Plan, as well as plan a new continuation proposal. The Tenth Work Plan reflects a body of research that fills needed Continuation Plan 1996 gaps that resulted from earlier annual budget cuts to the program. The Management Entity (ME) issued a restricted Request for Proposals (RFP) for the Tenth Work Plan in February 2001 with an April deadline for proposal submission. Developed with assistance from CRSP advisory bodies, the RFP solicited proposals for regional and cross-cutting research. Twenty-three proposals were submitted, and proposals were reviewed by experts outside of the program and by CRSP researchers. The Work Plan and Budget Subcommittee of the Technical Committee then evaluated the reviews and made recommendations to the ME. Proposals were selected for funding primarily based on their technical merit, gaps in the current CRSP research portfolio, and geographic regions. Tenth Work Plan funding decisions were announced in July 2001.
• The reporting period included the completion of a five-year program review by the External Evaluation Panel (EEP) that involved site visits, review of written materials, and meetings with researchers from sites not visited and those engaged in non-site-specific research. CRSP staff coordinated all travel logistics for and information collection on behalf of the EEP.
• In September 2000, EEP members Kevan Main and David Cummins, CRSP Director Hillary Egna, and USAID Cognizant Technical Officer Harry Rea visited Peru in the second of three visits to CRSP research sites. (The first site visit to Thailand took place in the previous reporting period.) The group met with CRSP researchers, students, farmers, and officials at the Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana, the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana, and the IIAP Quistococha research station. In addition they met with representatives of Terra Nuova, an Italian nongovernmental organization that works with farmers.
• In November 2000, EEP members Cummins and Christine Crawford and Director Egna visited Kenya in the third of three visits to CRSP research sites. In Kenya the group met with CRSP researchers, students, farmers, and government officials at the Sagana Fish Farm, Moi University, and the Kenya Department of Fisheries. Egna presented an overview of the CRSP at a CRSP Kenya Project workshop for new farm trainees at Moi University.
• In January 2001 in Orlando, Florida, EEP members Main, Cummins, Crawford, and Edna McBreen met variously with Director Egna, individual CRSP project participants, and among themselves.
• Upon submission by the EEP of a draft review report in March 2001, the PMO distributed the EEPs draft review report to program researchers for review and comment. The EEP report and CRSP response was submitted to USAID in May.
• The Board of Directors met during the reporting period via conference calls in October and December 2000, in person in Orlando, Florida, in January 2001, and via email in June 2001. Major topics were an update on the External Evaluation Panel (EEP) review; discussion of strategy for the next CRSP Continuation Plan proposal; and discussion of the Request for Proposals and review process for the Tenth Work Plan.
• Oregon State University Board of Directors member L.J.(Kelvin) Koong stepped down and was replaced by Stephanie Sanford, Program Coordinator for the Center for Water and Environmental Sustainability (CWESt) at OSU. A listing of the Board members appears in Appendix 2.
• The PD/A CRSP co-sponsored ISTA 5, the Fifth International Symposium on Tilapia Aquaculture, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in September 2000. The co-sponsorship included travel support to the symposium for Host Country CRSP researchers Daniel Jamu from Malawi, Remedios Bolivar from the Philippines, and Yang Yi from Thailand, as well as support for the production of the conference proceedings. Director Egna presented an overview of the PD/A CRSPs ongoing research in tilapia aquaculture during the plenary session.
• In November 2000 Director Egna presented a poster at the USAID Bureau for Africa Workshop on Agriculture, Environment, Private Sector and Food for Peace Officers in Nairobi, Kenya.
• In November 2000 a poster "Collaborative Research Support Program: Vital Links" co-authored by Egna was presented by the CRSP Council in the session on Global Research and Education as part of the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, and Crop Science Society of America.
• The PMO organized the PD/A CRSP Annual Meeting held in Orlando, Florida, on 25 and 26 January 2001, in conjunction with Aquaculture America 2001. The 2001 gathering featured a Technical Committee Meeting and separate meetings between program investigators and EEP members. Newly elected to the TC were CRSP principal investigators Kevin Fitzsimmons, Yang Yi, Jim Bowman, and Wilfrido Contreras-Sánchez. The complete listing of TC and Subcommittee members appears in Appendix 2.
• The PMO sponsored CRSP host country researchers to attend Aquaculture America 2001, the annual meeting of the US chapter of the World Aquaculture Society, in Orlando, Florida, in January 2001.
• The PD/A CRSP sponsored a special session at Aquaculture America 2001 that was chaired by CRSP researcher Claude Boyd. Entitled "Best Management Practices (BMPs) for Pond Aquaculture," the session comprised 12 presentations, including three by CRSP participants. The PD/A CRSP also donated a copy of the book Dynamics of Pond Aquaculture, edited by Egna and Boyd, for an auction conducted by the National Aquaculture Association as part of Aquaculture America 2001.
• Director Egna and Assistant Director Cormac Craven co-authored a poster entitled "The Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP: Strengthening linkages and developing technologies for sustainable aquaculture in the United States and worldwide" that was presented at Aquaculture America 2001.
• The PD/A CRSP participated in the Fourth Annual Food and Agricultural Science Exhibition and Reception on Capitol Hill sponsored by the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges (NASULGC), in March 2001. The display by the nine CRSPs was entitled "CRSPs--Food and Health Promotion by US Universities and Developing Countries."
• The PMO and IMNC submitted information on the PD/A CRSP for a USAID/CRSP Council publication entitled "Global Research for Agricultural Development and Sustainable Resource Management in Developing Economies," which serves to showcase CRSP strengths and impacts.
  
• Director Egna served as chair of the CRSP Impact Assessment Strategy Committee (CIASC), a joint CRSP Council/USAID committee, which met by phone and in person in May, June, and July 2001. A position paper articulating CRSP Council support for the USAID/AFS Impact Assessment Initiative and outlining a course for developing a CRSP-wide impact assessment (IA) strategy that fulfills the needs of the CRSPs and USAID/AFS was sent to USAID in June 2001.
  
• The Director participated in teleconference calls and in-person CRSP Council Committee meetings in September, October, and December 2000, and in February, March, May, and June 2001.
  
• Egna attended Board for International Food and Agricultural Development (BIFAD) meetings in Washington, DC, held 6 and 7 October 2000 and 29 and 30 March 2001. For CRSP Day 2001, the PD/A CRSP wrote and participated in presentations on biotechnology and natural resource management that took place as part of the 29 March BIFAD meeting in Washington, DC.
  
• The PMO inaugurated a program-wide library donation initiative to provide host country researchers with textbooks, academic journals, and other reference materials.
  
• The PMO convened the Proposal Planning Executive Committee (PPEC) to coordinate and lead the planning effort for the CRSP 2003­2008 continuation proposal for submission to USAID in early 2003. Stakeholder meetings are planned for three world regions: Central America, South America, and the Caribbean; Africa; and Asia. Each stakeholder meeting will be followed by a meeting of an expert panel of CRSP researchers and others selected by the PPEC, which will use current information, professional expertise, and findings from the regional meetings to identify a set of global constraints to aquaculture development.
  
• The CRSP produced Spanish translations of the current constraints and four white papers for distribution to attendees of the first of the planned regional stakeholder meetings. The white papers, written by CRSP researchers, on biotechnology, best management practices, indigenous species, and seed production were prepared to assist the CRSP move forward on the new continuation proposal.

Research and Research Support Agenda

Research conducted by the PD/A CRSP since 1982 has helped to remove some of the constraints facing aquaculture development. Still, aquaculture continues to be hampered in several important areas. In developing the Continuation Plan 1996, the CRSP undertook an in-depth constraints analysis. That analysis led to the identification of a number of major constraints that limit the development of extensive to semi-intensive sustainable aquaculture systems. Chief among these were:

• Inefficient and inconsistent aquacultural productivity
• Negative environmental effects resulting from aquaculture operations
• A poor understanding of social and economic factors
• Insufficient human capacity development
• Poor or outdated information management
• Limited networking capacities

The Continuation Plan 1996 responds to the first three of these factors by setting a research agenda that addresses constraints to aquacultural productivity, environmental effects, and social and economic aspects of aquaculture. The second three constraints are addressed by a research support agenda committed to improving human capacity development, information management, and networking. To carry out that agenda, the program includes a Research Support component comprising three efforts:

• A project that manages the CRSP Central Database, the largest repository of standardized data related to aquaculture; and
• An Information Management and Networking project for reporting and disseminating project and program outputs via publications and a central website and for fostering new exchanges and linkages within the global aquaculture community.
• Numerous human capacity development activities carried out by existing research projects.

The PD/A CRSPs multidisciplinary team of researchers and advisors represents a wide range of US and international aquacultural experience. During the reporting period, participating US institutions included:

• Auburn University
• Florida International University
• Oregon State University
• Southern Illinois University at Carbondale
• The Ohio State University
• The University of Michigan
• University of Arizona
• University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
• University of Georgia
• University of Hawaii
• University of Oklahoma

Research activities were conducted at host country sites in Mexico, Honduras, Peru, Kenya, Malawi, the Philippines, and Thailand, at the participating US institutions. Memoranda of understanding, representing formal ties between US and host country institutions, that were in place during the reporting period include those between:

• Auburn University and Moi University, Kenya
• Florida International University and the Freshwater Aquaculture Center, Central Luzon State University, the Philippines
• Oregon State University and ICLARM-Malawi
• Oregon State University and Moi University, Kenya
• Oregon State University and the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Kenya
• Oregon State University and the Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico
• Southern Illinois University at Carbondale and the Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana and the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana, Peru
• The University of Michigan and the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
• University of Georgia and Escuela Agrícola Panamericana, Zamorano, Honduras
• University of Hawaii at Manoa and the Freshwater Aquaculture Center, Central Luzon State University, the Philippines

Research Program Framework

The Continuation Plan 1996 program framework, and the foundation for the current portfolio of PD/A CRSP research projects, consists of two building blocks: research in sustainable production systems and research support activities.

The sustainable production systems research framework is organized into the areas of production optimization, environmental effects, and social and economic aspects. Each area is further subdivided into specific research themes, which are the thematic areas of research needed to remove constraints to the development of more sustainable aquaculture. The results framework for research areas as presented in the Continuation Plan 1996 is summarized in Table 1, and the results framework for research themes is provided in Tables 2, 3, and 4. Research areas and their respective themes are listed here:

Research Work Plans

The portfolio of research reported upon in the current period is summarized in Appendix 4, pp. 78–79. With a few exceptions, Ninth Work Plan research was concluded in the reporting period and is described in this report. The Ninth Work Plan was developed by the CRSP Technical Committee and reflects activities to be conducted by the CRSP from 1August 1998 through the end of this reporting period. CRSP work plans have typically covered two-year periods. This held true under the Ninth Work Plan for individual investigations, but while the overall time frame was greater than two years, no one investigation extended beyond a two-year period. Increasing the time period of the overall work plan came about because of the CRSPs substantially reduced USAID annual budget allocation beginning in the third year of the Continuation Plan.

Ninth Work Plan research took place in Mexico, Honduras, Peru, Kenya, Malawi, the Philippines, and Thailand, as well as in the US. The CRSPs two-year extension, though 31 July 2003, will allow the program to fulfill the objectives set out in the Continuation Plan 1996, completion of which was not possible in the originally-envisioned 5-year plan owing to the annual cuts mentioned above. The Tenth Work Plan, comprising investigations slated to begin, for the most part, in mid-2001, reflects a body of research that fills needed Continuation Plan 1996 gaps and rounds out the portfolio of work identified in the current grant. In those few instances where delays set Ninth Work Plan research schedules back, the commencement of new research under the Tenth Work Plan has been deferred until completion of prior obligations.

Earlier PD/A CRSP work plansthe first through the thirdspecified identical experiments (called Global Experiments) at all CRSP sites to provide a baseline for comparisons among sites. This approach was changed starting with the Fourth Work Plan when different but related experiments were also conducted at the various sites. The particular topics studied at each site were based on the research and information needs in each country, as identified by the Technical Committee.

The body of investigations funded under the Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Work Plans reflects the broadening of research as was proposed in the Continuation Plan 1996 as well as increased integration among sites. In addition to prime site activities, CRSP research now underway includes a cross-cutting, thematic approach for investigations that may be conducted at one or more PD/A CRSP sites and whose results may have wider application than results from prime and companion site investigations.

The CRSPs Information Management and Networking Component (IMNC) solicits research progress reports on a quarterly basis. Adherence to work plan schedules and methods and fulfillment of work plan objectives is also tracked by IMNC to assure continuing accountability for program awards. Reflecting methods and schedule changes to the funded research under the Eighth Work Plan, work plan addenda were printed in Spring 1998, Spring 1999, and Fall 2000. Changes to Ninth Work Plan research are documented in an addendum that was printed in Fall 2000.

Program Impacts 2000–2001

• A pond soil classification system that will integrate into the existing system of Soil Taxonomy was developed with data from five years of CRSP pond soils research at 12 sites. The result of a study in Pond Dynamics research, this system establishes a uniform method of describing ponds soils from different areas and will be useful in predicting the limitations of pond soils in developing countries and in pond aquaculture in general.
• An activity in Appropriate Technology research yielded a spreadsheet model that is easy to use and distributed via the Honduran CRSP-sponsored website <acuacultura-ca.org.hn> allows prospective fish farmers to make decisions on pond design. A user with information about soil type, hillslope, location, and water availability can use the model to determine an appropriate pond size. By balancing seepage and evaporation against water input from a stream, spring, well, or rainfall, the model allows farmers to determine how much water exchange is possible at their pond site.
• CRSP research in New Aquaculture Systems/New Species led to the development of diet recommendations for captive gamitana and paco, two Amazonian fish species troubled by inconsistent spawning due to inadequate nutrition. The guidelines suggest feeding the fish less protein and supplementing Vitamins C and E, imitating their natural diets, which are rich in fruit. Making these changes should not only increase spawning success and the quality of resulting fry but should also be more economical for farmers in the Amazon region.
• Nine tilapia farmers on Luzon Island in the Philippines participated in PD/A CRSP on-farm trials. This Adoption/ Diffusion research activity demonstrated that reducing feed rations by one-third can effectively lower tilapia grow-out costs without compromising growth or yield.
• In a test of sex-reversal technologies, CRSP researchers in Thailand focusing on Effluents and Pollution research used ultrasound to increase the transport of three synthetic hormones from water into tilapia. This immersion technique resulted in a more consistent and higher rate (98 to 100%) of masculinization of tilapia fry, and it also decreased the amount of time needed for successful sex reversal (two hours). Using ultrasound has the potential to replace the costly, inefficient, and risky technique of feeding synthetic testosterone for sex reversal of tilapia. Ultrasound also lowers the amount of hormones needed, which benefits both hatchery workers and the environment.
• CRSP researchers in Mexico and at Oregon State University have recently identified over 100 genes not previously identified in tilapia. They also announced a research breakthrough, showing induction of an Mx gene, which is important to tilapia immune system functions. This Reproduction Control research result represents the first time this gene product has been found in tilapia and may be useful for investigating the health of this important aquaculture species. Also, cDNA libraries have been established, and the researchers identified other important biomolecules involved in sex differentiation.
• Results of Pond Dynamics research in Thailand showed that snakehead were able to completely control Nile tilapia recruitment at all tested stocking ratios, and the best ratio of snakehead to tilapia was 1:80. Unwanted reproduction is a major constraint for tilapia producers. In areas where all-male fingerlings are unavailable, farmers can add to their ponds predatory fish that eat the offspring of stocked tilapia.
• CRSP scientists looking at New Aquaculture/New Species research found that lotus co-cultured with tilapia or cultured alone in ponds in Thailand was able to effectively take up nutrients from old pond mud and resulted in the reduction of nutrients in mud by about 2.4 tonnes of nitrogen and 1 tonne of phosphorus per hectare per year. Lotus contributed the largest portion of net income in lotus-tilapia co-culture. This CRSP research demonstrated the effectiveness of nutrient removal from old pond mud by lotus and the feasibility of rotation and co-culture of lotus and Nile tilapia both technically and economically. Both culture systems, lotus alone and co-culture with tilapia, recycle nutrients effectively within ponds and are environmentally friendly.
• CRSP researchers investigated several options for using abandoned shrimp farms for tilapia culture. New Aquaculture/New Species research in Thailand showed that growing tilapia can be a cost-effective and low-risk use of underutilized or abandoned shrimp ponds. Brackishwater ponds fertilized at rates of 14 kg N and 7 kg P ha^-1 wk^-1 at 10 salinity showed the highest net returns. Supplemental feeding of tilapia is recommended with 50% satiation being the most efficient rate.
• A CRSP stocking density study in New Aquaculture/New Species research suggests the economic feasibility of rearing two native species in the Peruvian Amazon. The production of these native species at densities of at least 2,500 fish ha^-1 will be more profitable (by a factor of over four for gamitana and two and one-half for paco) than the production of pineapple (US$1,008 ha^-1), which is currently the highest market value agriculture cash crop produced in the region studied.
• An Adoption/Diffusion research survey of 128 Honduran farmers (including 64 tilapia producers) identified the following characteristics of farmers who are more likely to integrate tilapia into their production systems: they are younger, their principal occupation is farming, they use their land more intensively, and they culture basic grains. Lack of access to financing was identified by 80% of respondents as the biggest barrier to farm investments and to intensifying tilapia production.
• As aquaculture production increases in Central America, developing domestic markets for tilapia is important to keep prices, and hence profitability, from dropping due to oversupply. CRSP research in Marketing and Economic Analysis is the first to conduct surveys in three potential tilapia markets (restaurants, supermarkets, and fish markets) in Honduras and Nicaragua. The most promising Honduran market appears to be larger chain supermarkets, where marketing strategies could focus on selling whole-dressed tilapia in specialized fish sections of the stores. To develop a domestic market for farmed tilapia in Nicaragua, consumer fears of contaminated fish from Lake Managua must be addressed by education and labeling efforts to distinguish farmed from wild tilapia.
• Studies conducted by the Philippines Project in Feeds and Fertilizers research indicated that a number of methods are available by which farmers can minimize the cost of feeding tilapia grown in ponds without compromising yields. The researchers created several extension brochures based on these results and distributed them to farmers. In addressing the human capacity development objective of current work, the Philippines Project provided partial support for the doctoral studies of a graduate student at Central Luzon State University (CLSU), Philippines. The student's research, including descriptive and experimental components, investigated the interactions of growth, survival, and social behavior of genetically manipulated tilapia.
• The CRSP assisted 19 international graduate and 29 undergraduate students, as well as 7 graduate and 12 undergraduate students from the US with funding, training, and research opportunities. At various scientific conferences and workshops, researchers and students gave 32 presentations in 9 countries to disseminate CRSP results to over 130 host country agencies, researchers, farmers, and students. Two fingerling production technical workshops were presented to 35 Honduran fingerling producers and NGO representatives to discuss current and potential production techniques and to analyze conditions and fingerling demands. A series of five highly successful short courses was conducted for the Kenya Fisheries Department personnel.
• In collaboration with Honduran NGOs and the Red de Desarrollo Sostenible-Honduras (RDS-HN), CRSP scientists working in Decision Support Systems research developed and launched a user-friendly website <acuacultura-ca.org.hn> designed to give extension workers and farmers access to easy-to-use information on fish culture and connect them with NGOs and decision-makers. In its first five months of operation, the website received 6,800 hits, and more than 300 people registered to receive information. The site features over 100 documents, an Excel-based pond design model, a chat room, and a page from which users can send questions to aquaculture experts.
• Adoption/Diffusion research yielded four technical manuals and several training modules to address lack of informational and technical training materials. Based on previous CRSP studies, the Thailand Project developed a manual that provides simple guidelines on fertilization, supplemental feeding, and pond management, as well as basic extension and training materials. The Peru Project produced a Spanish-language manual that includes topics such as broodstock preparation and selection, ovulation and spawning, and hormonal treatment for inducing reproduction in two Amazonian fish species. The Honduras Project developed a 37-page Spanish-language booklet that describes methods of tilapia production on Central American farms using low-cost inputs. The Mexico Project produced a manual that describes masculinization of Nile tilapia fry while emphasizing safe handling procedures. Meanwhile, CRSP researchers on the Kenya Project developed modules for training Kenya Fisheries Department extension officers and undergraduates in the Moi University Department of Fisheries in response to the lack of necessary training materials.